123 agreements are a decades-old diplomatic tool, and a key part of President Donald Trump’s nuclear strategy. In May 2025, Trump signed an executive order that featured a directive to the State Department to “aggressively pursue at least 20 new 123 Agreements” by January 2029.
Since then, the Trump administration has signed one pact with Thailand, concluded negotiations with El Salvador and initiated negotiations with Malaysia.
It’s also exploring nuclear power cooperation with Bahrain and Ecuador. But an agreement with Saudi Arabia has remained elusive — and highly controversial — for a decade.
Throughout 2018 and 2019, then-Energy Secretary Rick Perry worked to negotiate a 123 agreement to export U.S. nuclear technology to Saudi Arabia. Congress pushed back with an investigation and a bipartisan bill that would have restricted any agreement, and the first Trump administration never reached a final accord.
Historically, a major hurdle to a Saudi deal was that 123 agreements typically require the International Atomic Energy Agency to supervise and monitor any nuclear program, in part to check for any potential use of nuclear materials for weapons. In 2018, bin Salman — the de facto ruler of the kingdom — said that his country would develop nuclear weapons if Iran does.
“The Saudis wish to keep open the option of pursuing nuclear weapons,” said Thomas Countryman, a former acting undersecretary of state for arms control and international security. “The additional protocol restricts future options of Saudi Arabia with a nuclear program.”
“When I discussed this on three occasions with the Saudis … 10 years ago, I made clear that we have to have a Saudi additional protocol signed with the International Atomic Energy Agency,” Countryman, who is now chair of the non-profit Arms Control Association, continued. “That was the point that prevented them from moving forward into actual negotiations during the Obama administration.”
Tuesday reporting from the Wall Street Journal said the agreement forgoes the typical IAEA additional protocols in favor of a different monitoring program, but the administration has yet to announce details about how future transfers of nuclear materials and technology will be supervised.
